HORSEMILLS /
HUMAN POWERED MILLS /
TIDEMILLS /
WATERMILLS - BATTERIES
WATERMILLS - FLOUR /
WATERMILLS - SAWMILLS /
WATERMILLS - OTHER
WINDMILLS - FLOUR /
WINDMILLS - OTHER
New South Wales / Norfolk Island / Queensland / Tasmania / Victoria / Western Australia
One source reports a treadmill being installed in the Parramatta Female Factory in 1823, but no corroborative information is available.
James WILKINSON came to Australia on the 'Neptune' in 1790. With the help of fellow convicts to cut the timber and do the heavy work, he constructed an experimental but promising small treadmill at Parramatta under the direction of Lieutenant Governor GROSE.
This was the first mill built in the new colony. The design used a wheel of about 4.6 metres in diameter worked by two men and employed some sort of gearing, which produced twenty revolutions of the millstones to one of the driving wheel. WILKINSON took three months and five days to supervise the construction and it was demonstrated in early October 1793.
Its original production rate was low, only grinding two bushels of corn an hour, but experience and other factors increased this figure to four bushels of meal an hour. Unfortunately for various reasons, including splintering of the hardwood used it eventually ceased to work. It may have been this factor which led to the later importation of Norfolk Island Pine.
In October 1824 Captain ROLLAND, the Officer in Charge at the Port Macquarie convict settlement, listed six prisoners as being employed at the settlement's handmill. This was apparently in fact a treadmill, situated near the granary because Captain SMYTH, then Officer in Charge at the settlement, was instructed in June 1831, that the treadmill was to be converted into a bullock-mill as soon as possible, and only a month later, Robert PEEBLES was engaged to convert the treadmill to a bullock-mill.
The following year in 1832, Major Archibald Clunes INNES was renting the bullock-mill. He afterwards had PEEBLES build his private windmill at Port Macquarie on the hill of that name, employing a Mr HALLIDAY as miller.
John BAUGHN [1754 - 1797] arrived as a convict on the "Friendship" in the First Fleet. He was employed in the colony as a carpenter and was commissioned by the officers of the 'New South Wales Corps' in December 1793 to construct a mill. This was built on the Parade Ground with the help of an army artificer with access to the best materials available and was completed in March 1794.
It was the second mill constructed in the colony and the first in Sydney. In fact, the first three mills built in New South Wales were all human powered. It required nine men to operate a capstan and at one stage it was purported to have ground 28.6 kilograms of wheat in 17 minutes.
As a reward for his exploits as a carpenter and millwright, BAUGHAN was granted a small lot on the western side of Sydney Cove near Dawes Point. At the time of his death in September 1897, BAUGHAN was the overseer of carpenters in the colony.
An official biography of John BAUGHAN can be read here.
The second man powered mill in Sydney was a treadmill, built by James WILKINSON at Petersham under instructions from the Government, and in recognition of his previous efforts at Parramatta. He finished his treadmill shortly after BAUGHAN's capstan mill commenced work.
WILKINSON's treadmill was worked by six men walking inside a large wheel, but despite showing promising early signs, it proved quite unreliable, having problems with the cogs etc. and was quickly abandoned and BAUGHAN commissioned to build a second capstan mill.
WILKINSON returned to Parramatta but despite the failure of his treadmill, the authorities had been impressed with WILKINSON's efforts and were going to reward him for same. But by this time he had moved to the Hawkesbury and unfortunately he drowned in the Hawkesbury River before the reward could be granted.
There is some evidence that this mill was erected by Robert PEEBLES. In the late 1830's the Officer in Charge of Carter's Barracks was advising the prices for grinding grain. Punishment on the treadmill was also referred to at this time in the newspapers of the day. In September 1841 Captain INNES succeeded Major Christie as superintendent of the Carter's Barracks establishment. At that time there were 142 men working on the treadmill, 19 of whom were soldiers.
The Brickfields Establishment housed convicts working in the brick fields of Sydney. In the same precinct a barracks for convict boys was built c1822, separated from the Carter's (brick field workers) Barracks by a high brick wall. The boys had a treadmill introduced in 1823 in an adjoining building to assist in their training.
May 1794 saw the construction of a 9.4 x 6.1 metre weatherboard mill house next to the granary and near the landing place. Inside were a pair of querns worked by 6 men. This was not a success and so another design was tried. It is not known if it was at the same location. This was turned by winches and was only supposed to require 2 men to work it.
A treadmill was shipped to the island but parts of it were lost at sea during unloading and the remaining parts were used in the second watermill.
In 1837 a cranking mechanism, hoppers and millstones for grinding maize were installed in the granary, which had been built in 1827. Sources mention that it was worked by 100 convicts in chains as a form of punishment. It must be assumed that they operated in a rota system and not all at once. An 1844 source mentions that "The labour appears to be dreadfully severe; the yells and screams of the unfortunate criminals as they heave at the cumbersome engine almost induces a belief that the spectator is listening to the cries of lost souls.". Intentions to replace the equipment with a treadmill were thwarted in 1856, when the building burnt down.
The history of these two treadmills on Norfolk Island is not known. They may have been one of the above mentioned treadmills. image 1 image 2
The treadmill, which came from Sydney, was built alongside the Brisbane windmill, and, via a shaft from the treadmill building, operated one of a pair of millstones in the body of the windmill. Both mills were erected in late 1827, but the treadmill wasn't operational until 1829. The stones were probably French Burr stones.Both buildings were badly damaged by a lightning strike in 1836.
Twenty five men operated the treadmill for 14 hours each day. Each revolution of the treadmill required 24 steps, and 160 revolutions of the wheel were required between each 15 minute rest period. The treadmill was 10 or 13 metres long, and the treads about 23 centimetres wide. An iron bolt at one end held it steady while prisoners mounted the wheel. It was a case of step up or be hit in the shins when the bolt was removed. There was a rail for the prisoners to hold onto. A system was established to allow for rest periods, whereby circulating the operators. As one man got off at one end he was replaced and waited for his turn to come back on again.
In compensation for the work, the convicts received better rations and some, with time, became more accustomed to the work, although a convict named Matthew COLLINS collapsed and died at the treadmill in 1829. When it was being used as a punishment, only 16 men were forced to operate the treadmill for 14 hour shifts. The treadmill was sent to Tasmania as a prop for the filming of "For The Term of His Natural Life" and its current location is not known.
The water supply in early Brisbane was dependent on an earth dam, across a creek between Roma Street and Little Roma Street, which was built by convicts under the direction of Captain LOGAN in 1838. Power to pump this water along the hollow hardwood log pipeline to the soldier's barracks near Queen and George Streets, came from a convict operated treadmill.
The Hobart Female Factory had a treadmill installed in 1837.
The building in the old prison complex known as the Penitentiary, was originally built as a granary and flour mill. It was originally constructed by tradesmen convicts under the supervision of the Royal Engineers and under the guidance of the millwright Alexander CLARK. It was completed in 1844, but after a decade it was converted to a building to house prisoners sent from Norfolk Island. The original power for the mill was a 24 man treadmill.
The penal settlement at Rocky Hills had a wooden treadmill. view image
This mill was operated by John G. ROBERTSON at his property "Wanda Vale" on Sawyer's Creek near Casterton, soon after he took up the property in 1841. He ground his neighbour's grain.
David COGHILL of "Glendaruel" near Smeaton, brought a hand grister with him into the area in 1838. He was still employing Henry PALMER, a miller, in 1875, which suggests he continued to use it at least up until then.
On his arrival in Western Australia in 1830, HALL's (c1790 - 1859) goods included a horse mill. He was forced to auction off his goods, which would appear to include the mill, in about 1832. The Government bought the mill and in 1833 there was a suggestion to set it up in Fremantle Jail as a man powered mill, which would require about 12 to 16 operators. A treadmill was also suggested.
In 1856 the resident Magistrate BURGES had ordered a corn mill for the convict depot, with the intention of having it operated by convicts sentenced to hard labour. When it arrived, Thomas LEONOWENS the Commissariat Storekeeper, would not allow him to have it. The final result of this argument is not known but the convict depot closed soon after.
From 1839 - 1903 Rottnest Island was used as a prison for aboriginals convicted of crimes in the State. In 1842 a flourmill was recorded as being on the second storey of a building reached via stairs from a room below labeled "native room". What may be either a more efficient mill and mill house or the same mill, are recorded as being completed in 1844 with the intention of it being operated by the prisoners. (Some evidence indicates that this may have been a one storey building with a round room for the mill).
The mill was still operating in 1849 at the end of the first prison period. [see DEMPSTER in HORSEMILLS]. It had long wooden handles which the prisoners held and walked around the mill in a circle to revolve the stones. (Here one record talks of a capstan type arrangement and others talk of a single bar).
In February 1856, the mill building was damaged by fire. (This is a story worth telling on its own!). Records for continued use exist up to 1872, but it may have been used for longer.
A fairly vague entry. In 1851 there is mention of a hand mill being converted to a watermill by G. & E. WHITFIELD, who at that time were moving into the Toodyay area. "Knockdominie" - "Wicklow Hills" farm on Avon location U2 about 4 kilometres south east of Toodyay on the Avon River, was established c1839 by the family.